Table 4 Inclusion and exclusion criteria for article screening

Population

Areas experiencing threats to biodiversity

Studies measuring the change of threats state to biodiversity in PAs

The study does not refer to threats to biodiversity or measure threat changes

The threats reported in the studies must be present in the IUCN threat classification scheme studies. The reported threats must be anthropogenic (no geological events) and can be assessed directly or indirectly, such as proxies of threats measured by human drivers (e.g. Human footprint index)

The study does not refer to human threats. Eg geological events

Intervention

Establishing protected areas

Site(s) designated to conserve biodiversity: including all types and designations of PAs such as national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, nature reserves, biosphere reserves

The study is not focused on specific areas destined for biodiversity conservation as the primary objective

Worldwide conducted studies

All ecological realms and species: terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems

Comparator

Difference in threat state

Studies measuring changes in threats to PAs

Studies that do not specifically measure the change in threats over time in PAs. e.g. Studies identifying threats without assessing their temporal dynamics

  (a) Temporal Studies: comparing at least two time periods to evaluate the impact of actions, implementation efforts, or similar interventions on the state of threats within PAs

Studies are not focused on measuring threat interventions on PAs. e.g. Studies identifying threats without assessing threats over time

  (b) Comparative Studies: These studies compare the threats inside and outside of PAs or analyze the changes in threats before and after implementing threat control measures over a specific period

  (c) Management Comparison Studies: These studies examine and compare the outcomes of threats in PAs with different management approaches over time

Outcome

Measure the change of threats inside PAs

   Quantitative evaluation of threats and/or comparison of areas with or without protection, specifically focusing on measuring changes in the state of threats over time

Studies are not referring to threat stateafter an intervention. e.g. Studies measuring changes in species population abundance or other ecological properties instead of threats. e.g. Studies comparing species, population characteristics, abundance, cover, presence, and/or composition among protected and non-protected sites

   Use of direct or indirect measurements to assess changes in the threat state. This includes both direct assessments of threats as well as indirect assessments using proxies or other measurement approaches

   Studies that collect data through surveys and interviews measure human perception of threat change and transform these experiences into numerical outputs. An example of such an assessment is the Threat Reduction Assessment

Study type

–

Studies that employ comparison groups and/or utilize before-after (BA) or before-after control-impact (BACI) study designs will be included

Personal views and perspectives, theoretical studies, and models. Studies using observational data with no controls or comparators

Language

–

English

Other languages are excluded