Table 2 Intervention, comparator, outcome details and summary of results from the 16 articles included in this review

Bahadur, 2020

High

Community fishing policy, abolition of lots

n/a

Households dependent on fish:

% decreased/increased/same

Profit from fishing

Conflict with law enforcement

Conflict with other fishers

Fear of getting into trouble

Happiness

After 3 years of fishing legislation in Tonle Sap:

Profit made from fishing did not change significantly (46.5/38.2/15.35%; n 484)

Conflict with law enforcement has decreased (77.4/7.9/14.7%; n 469)

Conflict with other fishers significantly decreased p < 0.1 (78.1/5.1/16.8%; n 489)

Fear of getting into trouble significantly decreased p < 0.05 (49.3/28.6/22.1%; n 465)

People's general happiness improved (20.1/35.1/44.8%; n 467)

% yes/no

Access to fish better? % yes/no

Livelihood income better? % yes/no

Access to fish improved significantly p < 0.05 (75/25%; n 428)

Livelihood and income did not change significantly (47.9/52.1% n 422)

D'Agnes, 2010

High

CBNRM: marine/mangrove protected areas, reforestation, enforcement, peer education and behaviour change communication; prohibiting dynamite and cyanide use in fishing

RH: family planning, non-clinical contraceptives, peer education and behaviour change communication, improved access to RH services

CBNRM + RH integrated as one package

Before CBNRM

Before RH

Before CBNRM + RH

Proportion of households 4 years after intervention:

Youth contraceptive use at first sexual experience

Youth contraceptive use at first sexual experience (n = 400 each intervention):

No sig difference after CBNRM intervention

No sig difference after RH intervention

Sig increase after CBNRM + RH intervention

Before CBNRM

Before RH

Before CBNRM + RH

Young (15–24) males sexually active

Proportion of young males sexually active (n = 400 each intervention):

No sig difference after CBNRM intervention

No sig difference after RH intervention

Sig decrease after CBNRM + RH intervention

Before CBNRM

Before RH

Before CBNRM + RH

Households dependent on fishing

Proportion of households dependent on fishing (n = 400 each intervention):

No sig difference after CBNRM intervention

No sig difference after RH intervention

Sig decrease after CBNRM + RH intervention

Dinh, 2010

Low

Core zone, ban on exploitation

Buffer zone

Transition zone

n/a

% change in gross annual income from forest per capita between 1998 and 2005

Change in % gross annual income from forest per occupant between 1998 and 2005 was highest in core (83%) compared to buffer (27%) and transition (3%) and shows local people kept using forest resources despite ban in Core zone, Cat Tien 1998–2005. n for the three zones was 18; 51; 18 respectively

After designation:

Core zone

Buffer zone

Transition zone

Before designation:

Core zone

Buffer zone

Transition zone

Gross annual income from forest—1000 Vietnamese Dong/occupant/year

Gross annual income from the forest was similar across zones (though higher in core than buffer and transition, 1840 vs 1570 vs 1470) before 1998 designation of Cat Tien BR. By 2005, it had increased sevenfold in core, threefold in buffer and slightly increased in the transition (12,580 vs 4540 vs 1760). n for the three zones was 18; 51; 18 respectively

After designation:

Core zone

Buffer zone

Transition zone

Before designation:

Core zone

Buffer zone

Transition zone

% of household income from forest resources

1998–2005 the % of income from forest increased most in core zone (from 67 to 97%, t = − 5.212, df 17, p < 0.001), then in buffer (from 58 to 64%, t = − 2.031, df 50, p < 0.05), while it dropped in transition zone (from 45 to 19%, NS). n for the three zones was 18; 51; 18 respectively

Dumlao, 2003

Moderate

Mangrove rehabilitation project

Non members of the mangrove rehabilitation project

% local people reporting:

Increased family income

Comparing perspectives of members of a 6-year mangrove rehabilitation project and local non-members (n = 15 in each group):

73% of members had uplift in family income through financial support by the project, whilst none of the non-members did. However, 23% of members said their income had decreased due to mangrove planting (e.g. time spent planting has low monetary return)

Tensions in local social relations

All respondents in both groups experienced project-related social tensions e.g. (misunderstandings, boundary and area conflicts and lack of cooperation). This is likely due to/exacerbated by project implementers not providing solutions or guidance for these problems

Eriksson, 2019

Moderate

Shark and manta ray conservation—fishing zone restrictions, fishing gear restrictions

Non-BR with intervention

Effect of conservation on economic income

% increase/decrease/no mention

Comparing Komodo National Park in BR (n = 30) and Nusa Penida outside BR (n = 14):

Komodo, 63% of the 30 respondents experienced a negative effect on income from Park (10% increase in income, 27% did not mention): the zoning system complicated access to fishing grounds, and they had to invest in new fishing gear

Nusa Penida: 43% of 14 respondents had increased income and none experienced a negative effect (57% did not mention). Many said livelihoods depend on the region being protected, especially those working part-time in tourism

Knowledge of conservation rules

% responding high/low/no mention

Komodo: 43% had a high degree of knowledge of conservation rules and 40% a low degree (17% did not mention). Also many complained of poor access to information about regulations

Nusa Penida: 72% had a high degree of this knowledge, 14% a low degree and 14% did not mention

Relationship with conservation authorities

% responding good/bad/no mention

Komodo: relations between fishing communities and conservation authorities and rangers were poor according to 67%, only 20% mentioned good relations, 13% did not mention. Some said park rangers were threatening. Lack of dialogue for the zoning system led to past disputes

Nusa Penida: a majority had good opinion of MPA management and boat patrols (86%), seeing them as friendly, respectful, and trustworthy. They said fishing had improved since protection from destructive fishing gear. None said there was a bad relationship, 14% did not mention

Access to alternative livelihoods

% responding good/poor/no mention

Komodo: only 23% had access to alternative livelihoods, most said access was poor (67%), 10% did not mention. The main obstacle being a lack of access to financial support to start businesses such as shops or street kitchens

Nusa Penida: access to additional source of income was perceived as good (64%) especially tourism which was used by half of interviewees. None described it as poor, and 36% did not mention

Ngoc, 2018

Unclear

Core zone, with fishing ban

n/a

Litres extra fuel usage per trip

Since the MPA ban on fishing, across 135 fishers, more litres of fuel were used to access fishing grounds: liftnet fishers worst affected, then longline, then gillnet (x̄ 4.2 L per trip vs 3.8 and 1.1)

MPA

Fishing households' (Likert scale 1–5) perceived impact of MPA on:

Food security

Tourism jobs and additional income

Participate in creating/managing MPA regulation

Across 135 fishers, perceived impact of MPA after 10 years' implementation in Cu Lao Cham:

Food security: mean closest to "somewhat agree" (x̄ 3.95)

Tourism jobs and extra income: closest to "somewhat agree" (x̄ 3.79)

Participate in MPA regulation: between "somewhat disagree" and "neither agree nor disagree" (x̄ 2.6)

Nguyen, 2019

Low

Initiatives to aid local people participation in tourism services: Training courses for local guides and motorbike taxi groups

n/a

% tourism workers reporting conflict:

Between local stakeholders and tour operators

Between freelance guides and tour guides

Among local tourism stakeholders

Of 41 local respondents working in tourism in Cu Lao Cham, regarding tourism and initiatives by CLC Tourism Management board:

29% said it caused social conflicts between local tourism stakeholders and tour operators, 10% said it caused conflict between freelance guides and tour guides, and 12% said it cause conflict among local tourism stakeholders

Perceived quality of life

% improved a lot/improved a little/no change

68% perceived it improved quality of life a lot, 15% improved a little, and 17% no change

% reporting jobs provided: for poor/for women

90% said tourism provided jobs for the poor, and 90% said it provided jobs for women

Palmer, 2014

Moderate

NGOs supporting indigenous rights to resource extraction

n/a

Participated in negotiation, YTM/YJ site, mean of responses (1 = yes, 0 = no):

All household heads

Some household heads

In Lore Lindu, after 14 years of NGO support for indigenous rights by YTM/YJ, negotiations for comanagement involved:

Low participation of ALL household heads (x̄ 0.29, SD 0.46, n 7)

Moderate participation of SOME household heads (x̄ 0.62, SD 0.50, n 7)

The Nature Conservancy (TNC) focus on biodiversity conservation

n/a

Participated in negotiation, TNC site, mean of responses (1 = yes, 0 = no):

All household heads

Some household heads

In Lore Lindu, after 14 years of NGO support for indigenous rights by TNC site, negotiations for comanagement involved:

No participation of ALL household heads (x̄ 0, n 21)

High participation of SOME household heads (x̄ 0.86 SD 0.38, n 21)

Pido, 2009

Low

Locally managed MPA

n/a

% low/middle/high

Material lifestyle local house construction materials

For 135 households within MPA in Palawan, using household building materials as a proxy, material style of life measures were: low 30.4%; middle 36.3%; and high 33.3%

Richardson, 2018

Moderatre

Small-scale aquaculture pond management program (Cambodia HARVEST Aquaculture and Fisheries Program)

No intervention (people who discontinued)

% fish-farming households that sometimes cannot afford to feed family

In household survey at Tonle Sap lake in 2015, locals who continued on aquaculture program (n = 324) had fewer problems feeding their families than those who discontinued, n = 112, (23% vs 40%) but the difference was not significant (z score = 1.381 p = 0.1673)

Shively, 2001

Unclear

Farms on biosphere reserve with irrigation

Biosphere reserve site with no irrigation

Total income (Pesos) of farm household

A significant difference (only at the 90% level) in income between irrigated (x̄ 104,128; n 46) and rain-fed (x̄ 108,867; n 35) lowland rice farms in Palawan

Irrigation

Before irrigation

Days of employment for farm labourers

More days of employment available on upland farms after irrigation systems added than before (x̄ 44 vs 18, n unknown), but not significant at 95% level. Unknown duration of irrigation

Sok, 2012

Moderate

Community fishing project

n/a

Participation in fisheries project (% women/men): community meetings

group discussions

workshops

Across 301 respondents, for a fisheries project, there was significantly different participation in:

community meetings: odds ratio of 3.8 at p < 0.05 (46.3/75.2%)

group discussions: odds ratio of > 3.5 at p < 0.05 (38.4/67.9%)

workshops: odds ratio of 2.1, at p < 0.05 (48.8/64.2%)

Other activities not significantly different between men and women included training, cross visits, whiteboard information, bulletins, advocacy campaigns, and commune investment plan development

Torell, 2010

High

Micro-credit and new enterprises to diversify livelihoods by resource management and small scale infrastructure in five communities severely affected by 2004 tsunami

Non project beneficiaries

Number of livelihoods per household

Household survey of micro-credit intervention in Thailand:

Number of livelihoods per household showed no significant difference between beneficiaries (x̄ 1.92; SD 0.932; n 226) and non-beneficiaries (x̄ 2.04; SD 0.979; n 228); t = 1.328, df = 452, p > 0.1

n/a

Household response for:

Create stronger social ties

Improve coordination with local government

Develop my business skills

% of micro-credit beneficiaries (n = 226) who chose 4 ("agree") on Likert scale 1–5 for:

Creating stronger social ties: 73%

Improving coordination with local governments: 51%

Developing business skills: 67%

Tran, 2014

Moderate

Giao Xuan ecotourism project with hosting to develop the skills of community members (especially poor women and fishermen) in conservation-based eco-business

Non-host families within the ecotourism project

USD monthly income of resident families participating in scheme

In a capacity building ecotourism project over 5 years with 11 host families involved in the project, ecotourism income $47 per month, twice the average for non-hosting project members (n = unclear, possibly 6). The hosts' ecotourism income was twice as much as from wet rice cultivation

Tupper, 2015

Moderate

Sagrada-Bogtong Marine Reserve

Decalve Strict Protection Zone (Bintuan-Sangat Marine Park)

Bugor-Sand Island MPA

n/a

MPA stakeholders' ratings of:

"Existence of a decision-making & management body"

"Existence and adequacy of enabling legislation"

"Degree of interaction between managers & stakeholders"

Household survey of 28 Calamianes Islands MPA stakeholders:

Across all three sites, adequacy of decision-making & management body, and enabling legislation, and interaction between managers and stakeholders, were positive except for the last which was negative only in Sagrada-Bogtong,

Sagrada-Bogtong Marine Reserve

Decalve Strict Protection Zone (Bintuan-Sangat Marine Park)

Bugor-Sand Island MPA

"Perceptions of local resource harvest"

"Number and nature of markets"

Across all three sites, perceptions of local resource harvest were negative, e, and perceptions of the number and nature of markets were positive

Vong, 2017

Moderate

CBNRM in Chivieng

No CBNRM

Household expenditure USD on food, non-food and non-timber forest products

Even though CBNRM did not positively affect the household

consumption in Chivieng community as a whole (possibly due to the impact of migrant fishers), in the CBNRM community, households who fished only inside the community boundary, had higher household consumption than those fishing within boundary in the non CBNRM community (x̄ = 56.4 Range (15.57–138); n 156 vs x̄ = 33.95 (12.51–110); n 192, NS