Table 1 Research framework for Population-Intervention-Comparator-Outcomes (PICO)

Forests

State

Before and after intervention (temporal dimension)

Species diversity and abundance, forest cover, forest condition, tree density, biomass, carbon sequestration, measures of land degradation and desertification, forest loss, land conversion, measures of disturbances such as number of cut stumps, number of invasive species, etc.

OR Private

OR With and without the intervention, from a similar setting (spatial dimension)

Fisheries

OR Community

OR Both before and after AND with and without intervention (BACI)

Abundance of fish, fish size, diversity of species, biomass, health of coral, water quality, reproductive indicators, etc.

Rangelands

OR Mixed

Species diversity and abundance, plant and bare ground cover, proportion of different species, soil indicators, carbon sequestration, biomass, soil nutrient levels, number of supported animals etc.