Table 1 Different approaches to process design in knowledge production
Normal science | Post-normal science | Conflict management | |
|---|---|---|---|
Question | Well-defined problem Closed-framed question | Wicked problem Stakeholder-negotiated question(s) | Potentially irreconcilable problem definitions Co-existing diverging questions |
Evidence | Published scientific and grey literature Quantitative and qualitative scientific analysis | Filling primary data gaps highlighted by stakeholders Exploring interpretations through social learning | Evidence generation integrated in process design, e.g. via joint fact-finding Facilitated exploration of the role of different types of knowledge |
Review team | Experts Scientific independence | Involving stakeholders in framing the process, e.g. identifying research questions Consensus seeking | Stakeholders are the experts and directly involved in answering the questions Building mutual understanding of disagreements |
Stakeholder group | Consultation role only Identified based on pre-defined problem | Decision-making authority Involvement prior to problem definition | Stakeholders may not agree to form a group—distinct meetings instead Facilitation aiming at equality in practice among different stakeholders |