Table 1 Four methods of operant conditioning in the context of human–wildlife conflict

Change in presence of stimulus

 Addition

(Positive conditioning)

Offer an appetitive stimulus (e.g. food) at a location where we want an animal to go to

Introduce an aversive deterrent at a location we want an animal to avoid

 Removal

(Negative conditioning)

Remove aversive human-produced noise from a location where we want an animal to go to

Remove an appetitive stimulus (e.g. food) from a location we want an animal to avoid