Table 1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria for full-review screening

Population

Terrestrial ecosystems

Freshwater, marine, and coastal ecosystems

Intervention

All types of protected areas (both IUCN categories, and others with formal or informal designations)

Other conservation interventions such as payment for ecosystem service interventions, REDD+

Outcomes

Studies that quantitatively measure the biophysical outcomes of change in vegetation extent and condition

Studies that do not quantitatively measure biophysical outcomes of change in vegetation extent and condition

Study designs

Study that have comparison groups to measure impact. Only experimental and quasi-experimental designs (e.g. randomized controlled trials (RCTs), difference-in-difference (DID), matching, regression discontinuity designs (RDD), instrumental variables (IV)

Personal views and perspectives, case studies, theoretical studies and models. Studies using observational data with no controls, correlation studies