Fig. 1

Working theory of change on the links between natural climate solutions (NCS) (green box) and links to change in greenhouse gas emissions and carbon mitigation outcomes (primary outcomes of interest—dark grey). Green box includes the NCS investigated. All aim to increase aboveground biomass in natural and modified terrestrial tropical habitats. They may also have additional, socioeconomic, biodiversity, and ecosystem service outcomes. However, we do not include studies that only focus on these