Table 4 Types of predator cues used to quantify anti-predator responses in mammals, and examples of applications in studies

Direct

Visual

Predator model (taxidermied, artificial, photograph)

[52, 97, 163]

Audible

Predator call

[89, 164, 266]

Olfactory

Predator body odour

[90, 171]

Visual + Olfactory

Predator fur/skin/feathers

[88]

Visual + Audible + Olfactory

Live predator

[125, 175, 238]

Contextual

Visual

Conspecific or heterospecific alarm behaviour

[279]

Audible

Conspecific or heterospecific alarm call

[263, 280]

Olfactory

Predator urine, predator scent mark

[253, 286]

Visual + Olfactory

Predator faeces

[237, 251]

Visual + Olfactory/Audible

Injured conspecific

[102]