Table 3 The subjects, exposures, comparators, and outcomes of relevance

Miombo woodlands: as defined by the presence of Brachystegia, Julbernardia and Isoberlinia species

Land use and land use practices on above and below-ground carbon stocks, which include:

Energy use (charcoal, fuelwood)

Poles (home use)

Commercial timber harvesting

Agriculture (shifting cultivation, expansion)

Livestock (browsing of saplings)

Wildlife damage (e.g. elephants)

Beekeeping (making of traditional hives)

Destructive harvesting of NTFPs (e.g. edible caterpillars, fruits)

Protected areas

Agroforestry

Fire (natural; managed and wild)

Rainfall; drought; temperature variability

Infrastructure development (roads; mining)

Alternative land uses and practices compared either as controlled ‘plots’ (study areas defined in the primary studies) with different land-use strategies set up and analysed at the same time, or before-and-after intervention comparisons on the same plots

Any measured change in:

Carbon stocks (including plant carbon and soil carbon)

Plant biomass (including above and below ground)